- Anti Joke

Marijuana" redirects here. For other uses, see Marijuana (disambiguation). For the plant genus, see Cannabis. Dried flowers of the Cannabis sativa plant with visible trichomes. People of the Hadza ethnic group in north-central Tanzania smoking cannabis Cannabis, also known as marijuana[1] (from the Mexican Spanish marihuana) and by other names,a[›] refers to preparations of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug and as medicine.[2][3][4] Chemically, the major psychoactive compound in cannabis is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (?9-THC); it is one of 400 compounds in the plant, including other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), and tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), which can produce sensory effects unlike the psychoactive effects of THC.[5] Contemporary uses of cannabis are as a recreational drug, as religious or spiritual rites, or as medicine; the earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC.[6] In 2004, the United Nations estimated that global consumption of cannabis indicated that approximately 4.0 percent of the adult world population (162 million people) used cannabis annually, and that approximately 0.6 percent (22.5 million) of people used cannabis daily.[7] Since the early 20th century cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use, and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids currently illegal in most countries of the world; the United Nations has said that cannabis is the most used illicit drug in the world.[8][9] Contents [hide] 1 Effects 1.1 Classification 1.2 Medical use 1.3 Long-term effects 2 Forms 2.1 Unprocessed 2.2 Processed 2.2.1 Kief 2.2.2 Hashish 2.2.3 Hash oil 2.2.4 Residue (resin) 3 Routes of administration 4 Mechanism of action 5 Potency 5.1 Difference between Cannabis indica and sativa 5.2 Adulterants 6 Detection of use 7 Gateway drug theory 8 History 9 Legal status 10 Price 11 Truth serum 12 Breeding and cultivation 13 In arts and literature 14 See also 15 Footnotes 16 Citations 17 Further reading 18 External links Effects Main article: Effects of cannabis Main short-term physical effects of cannabis Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight.[10] Aside from a subjective change in perception and, most notably, mood, the most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment of short-term and working memory,[11] psychomotor coordination, and concentration. Long-term effects are less clear.[12][13] Deaths associated to cannabis overdose are exceptionally rare. Fatalities resulting from cannabis overdose are said to most often occur after intravenous injection of hashish oil.[14] Classification Main article: Psychoactive effects While many psychoactive drugs clearly fall into the category of either stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen, cannabis exhibits a mix of all properties, perhaps leaning the most towards hallucinogenic or psychedelic properties, though with other effects quite pronounced as well. Though THC is typically considered the primary active component of the cannabis plant, various scientific studies have suggested that certain other cannabinoids like CBD may also play a significant role in its psychoactive effects.[15][16][17] Medical use Main article: Medical cannabis Prescription medical cannabis in the Netherlands Cannabis used medically has several well-documented beneficial effects. Among these are: the amelioration of nausea and vomiting, stimulation of hunger in chemotherapy and AIDS patients, lowered intraocular eye pressure (shown to be effective for treating glaucoma), as well as general analgesic effects (pain reliever).b[›] Less confirmed individual studies also have been conducted indicating cannabis to be beneficial to a gamut of conditions running from multiple sclerosis to depression. Synthesized cannabinoids are also sold as prescription drugs, including Marinol (dronabinol in the United States and Germany) and Cesamet (nabilone in Canada, Mexico, the United States and the United Kingdom).b[›] Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved smoked cannabis for any condition or disease in the United States, largely because good quality scientific evidence for its use from U.S. studies is lacking.[18] Regardless, fourteen states have legalized cannabis for medical use.[19][20] The United States Supreme Court has ruled in United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Coop and Gonzales v. Raich that it is the federal government that has the right to regulate and criminalize cannabis, even for medical purposes. Canada, Spain, The Netherlands and Austria have legalized some form of cannabis for medicinal use.[21] Long-term effects Main article: Long-term effects of cannabis Main article: Cannabis smoking#Smoking lung cancer risk Cannabis is ranked one of the least harmful drugs by a study published in the UK medical journal, The Lancet.[22] Given the limitations of the research, scientists still debate the possibility of cannabis dependence; the potential of cannabis as a "gateway drug"; its effects on intelligence and memory; its effect on the lungs; and the relationship, if any, of cannabis use to mental disorders[23] such as schizophrenia,[24] psychosis,[25] Depersonalization disorder[26] and depression.[27] Forms Unprocessed Dried Cannabis flowers in natural herbal form The terms cannabis or marijuana generally refer to the dried flowers and subtending leaves and stems of the female cannabis plant.[citation needed] This is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 22% THC.[28][29] In contrast, cannabis varieties used to produce industrial hemp contain less than 1% THC and are thus not valued for recreational use.[30] Processed Kief Main article: Kief Kief is a powder, rich in trichomes, which can be sifted from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants and either consumed in powder form or compressed to produce cakes of hashish.[31] Hashish Main article: Hashish Hashish Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash) is a concentrated resin produced from the flowers of the female cannabis plant. Hash can often be more potent than marijuana and can be smoked or chewed.[32] It varies in color from black to golden brown depending upon purity. Hash oil BHO Main article: Hash oil Hash oil, or "butane honey oil" (BHO), is a mix of essential oils and resins extracted from mature cannabis foliage through the use of various solvents. It has a high proportion of cannabinoids (ranging from 40 to 90%).[33] and is used in a variety of cannabis foods. Residue (resin) Because of THC's adhesive properties, a sticky residue, most commonly known as "resin", builds up inside utensils used to smoke cannabis. It has tar-like properties but still contains THC as well as other cannabinoids. This buildup retains some of the psychoactive properties of cannabis but is more difficult to smoke without discomfort caused to the throat and lungs. This tar may also contain CBN, which is a breakdown product of THC. Cannabis users typically only smoke residue when cannabis is unavailable. Glass pipes may be water-steamed at a low temperature prior to scraping in order to make the residue easier to remove.[34] Routes of administration Main article: Cannabis consumption A joint A forced-air vaporizer. The detachable balloon (top) fills with vapors that are then inhaled. A conduction vaporizer, with flexible extension tube ("whip"). A small serving of cannabis is heated on a metal platform (center). Cannabis is consumed in many different ways, most of which involve inhaling vaporized cannabinoids ("smoke") from small pipes, bongs (portable version of hookah with water chamber), paper-wrapped joints or tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts. A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 365–410 °F (185–210 °C),[citation needed] causing the active ingredients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 390.4 °F (199.1 °C) at 760 mmHg pressure).[35][not in citation given] A lower proportion of toxic chemicals is released than by smoking, depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature setting. This method of consuming cannabis produces markedly different effects than smoking due to the flash points of different cannabinoids; for example, CBN (usually considered undesirable) has a flash point of 212.7 °C (414.9 °F)[36] and would normally be present in smoke but not in vapor. Fresh, non-dried cannabis may be consumed orally. However, the cannabis or its extract must be sufficiently heated or dehydrated to cause decarboxylation of its most abundant cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), into psychoactive THC.[37] Cannabinoids can be extracted from cannabis plant matter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create a tincture, often referred to as Green Dragon. Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter),[38] so tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (i.e. cream or any milk except skim) with a small amount of cannabis. Mechanism of action The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in their persisting in the body for long periods of time. Even after a single administration of THC, detectable levels of THC can be found in the body for weeks or longer (depending on the amount administered and the sensitivity of the assessment method). A number of investigators have suggested that this is an important factor in marijuana's effects, perhaps because cannabinoids may accumulate in the body, particularly in the lipid membranes of neurons.[39] Until recently, little was known about the specific mechanisms of action of THC at the neuronal level. However, researchers have now confirmed that THC exerts its most prominent effects via its actions on two types of cannabinoid receptors, the CB1 receptor and the CB2 receptor, both of which are G-Protein coupled receptors. The CB1 receptor is found primarily in the brain as well as in some peripheral tissues, and the CB2 receptor is found primarily in peripheral tissues, but is also expressed in nueroglial cells as well.[40] THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messenger system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner. These actions can be blocked by the selective CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant), which has been shown in clinical trials to be an effective treatment for smoking cessation, weight loss, and as a means of controlling or reducing metabolic syndrome risk factors.[41] However, due to the dysphoric effect of CB1 antagonists, this drug is often discontinued due to these side effects. Potency According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), "the amount of THC present in a cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency."[42] The three main forms of cannabis products are the flower, resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that cannabis often contains 5% THC content, resin "can contain up to 20% THC content", and that "Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC content."[42] A scientific study published in 2000 in the Journal of Forensic Sciences (JFS) found that the potency (THC content) of confiscated cannabis in the United States (US) rose from "approximately 3.3% in 1983 and 1984", to "4.47% in 1997". It also concluded that "other major cannabinoids (i.e., CBD, CBN, and CBC)" (other chemicals in cannabis) "showed no significant change in their concentration over the years".[43] More recent research undertaken at the University of Mississippi's Potency Monitoring Project[44] has found that average THC levels in cannabis samples between 1975 and 2007 have increased from 4% in 1983 to 9.6% in 2007. Australia's National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (flowers) of the female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have "much lower THC levels".[45] The UN states that the leaves can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC.[42] After revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government moved cannabis back from a class C to a class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance of high potency cannabis. They believe skunk accounts for between 70 and 80% of samples seized by police[46] (despite the fact that skunk can sometimes be incorrectly mistaken for all types of herbal cannabis).[47][48] Extracts such as hashish and hash oil typicality contain more THC than high potency cannabis flowers. While commentators have warned that greater cannabis "strength" could represent a health risk, others have noted that users readily learn to compensate by reducing their dosage, thus benefiting from reductions in smoking side-hazards such as heat shock or carbon monoxide. Difference between Cannabis indica and sativa Types of Cannabis A Cannabis indica plant may have a CBD/THC ratio 4:-5 times that of Cannabis sativa. Cannabis with relatively high ratios of CBD:THC is less likely to induce anxiety than vice versa. This is be due to CBD's antagonistic effects at the cannabinoid receptor, compared to THC's partial agonist effect. CBD is also a 5-HT1A agonist, which contributes to an anxiolytic effect of cannabis.[49] The relatively large amount of CBD contained in Cannabis indica, means, compared to a sativa, the effects are modulated significantly.[citation needed] The effects of sativa are well known for its cerebral high, hence used daytime as medical cannabis, while indica are well known for its sedative effects and prefered night time as medical cannabis.[citation needed] Adulterants Chalk (in the Netherlands) and glass particles (in the UK) have been used to make cannabis appear to be higher quality.[50][51][52] Increasing the weight of hashish products in Germany with lead caused lead intoxication in at least 29 users.[53] In the Netherlands two chemical analogs of Sildenafil (Viagra) were found in adulterated marijuana.[54] According to both the "Talk to FRANK" website and the UKCIA website, Soap Bar, "perhaps the most common type of hash in the UK", was found "at worst" to contain turpentine, tranquilizers, boot polish, henna and animal feces—amongst several other things.[55][56] One small study of five "soap-bar" samples seized by UK Customs in 2001 found huge adulteration by many toxic substances, including soil, glue, engine oil and animal feces.[57] Detection of use Main article: Cannabis drug testing THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH, can be measured in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use testing program or a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal offense. The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, prescription use from illicit use, elapsed time since use, and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, however, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medical purposes from unauthorized recreational smoking.[58] Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays, often employed as the initial screening method when testing physiological specimens for marijuana presence, have different degrees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites. Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC. Blood may contain both substances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage.[58][59][60][61] The Duquenois-Levine test is commonly used as a screening test in the field, but it cannot definitively confirm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives. Despite this, it is common in the United States for prosecutors to seek plea bargains on the basis of positive D-L tests, claiming them definitive, or even to seek conviction without the use of gas chromatography confirmation, which can only be done in the lab.[62] Gateway drug theory Further information: Gateway drug theory Since the 1950s, United States drug policies have been guided by the assumption that trying cannabis increases the probability that users will eventually use "harder" drugs.[63] This hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of anti-cannabis drug policy in the United States,[64] though the validity and implications of this hypothesis are hotly debated.[63] Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.[65] No widely accepted study has ever demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between the use of cannabis and the later use of harder drugs like heroin and cocaine. However, the prevalence of tobacco cigarette advertising and the practice of mixing tobacco and cannabis together in a single large joint, common in Europe, are believed to be cofactors in promoting nicotine dependency among young people trying cannabis.[66] A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a given setting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential than cannabis itself. The study called for further research on "social context, individual characteristics, and drug effects" to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs.[67] A new user of cannabis who feels there is a difference between anti-drug information and their own experiences will apply this distrust to public information about other, more powerful drugs. Some studies state that while there is no proof for this gateway hypothesis, young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk group for intervention programs.[68] Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be "poly-drug" users, and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug.[69] Another gateway hypothesis is that a gateway effect may be detected as a result of the "common factors" involved with using any illegal drug. Because of its illegal status, cannabis users are more likely to be in situations which allow them to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs.[70][71] By this argument, some studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may be regarded as gateway drugs.[65] However, a more parsimonious explanation could be that cannabis is simply more readily available (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs, and alcohol/tobacco are in turn easier to obtain earlier than cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some areas), thus leading to the "gateway sequence" in those people who are most likely to experiment with any drug offered.[63] A 2010 study published in the Journal of Health and Social Behavior found that the main factors in users moving on to other drugs were age, wealth, unemployment status, and psychological stress. The study found there is no "gateway theory" and that drug use is more closely tied to a person's life situation, although cannabis users are more likely to use other drugs.[72] History See also: Cannabis, War on Drugs, and Legal history of cannabis in the United States The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in Taiwan.[73] Má (?), the Chinese expression for hemp, is a pictograph of two plants under a shelter.[74] Cannabis is indigenous to Central and South Asia.[75] Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found in the 3rd millennium BCE, as indicated by charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania.[6] In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.[76][77] Cannabis is also known to have been used by the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal thousands of years ago. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit (?????/????? ganja in modern Indic languages).[78][79] The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas, was sometimes associated with cannabis.[80] Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans.[81] Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word "cannabis".[82] Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai—"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance.[83] Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 AD Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.[84] One writer has claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews and early Christians[85][86] due to the similarity between the Hebrew word "qannabbos" ("cannabis") and the Hebrew phrase "qené bósem" ("aromatic cane"). It was used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.[87] A study published in the South African Journal of Science showed that "pipes dug up from the garden of Shakespeare's home in Stratford-upon-Avon contain traces of cannabis."[88] The chemical analysis was carried out after researchers hypothesized that the "noted weed" mentioned in Sonnet 76 and the "journey in my head" from Sonnet 27 could be references to cannabis and the use thereof.[89] Cannabis was criminalized in various countries beginning in the early 20th century. In the United States, the first restrictions for sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in District of Columbia).[90] It was outlawed in South Africa in 1911, in Jamaica (then a British colony) in 1913, and in the United Kingdom and New Zealand in the 1920s.[91] Canada criminalized cannabis in the Opium and Drug Act of 1923, before any reports of use of the drug in Canada. In 1925 a compromise was made at an international conference in The Hague about the International Opium Convention that banned exportation of "Indian hemp" to countries that had prohibited its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes". It also required parties to "exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicit international traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin".[92][93] In 1937 in the United States, the Marihuana Tax Act was passed, and prohibited the production of hemp in addition to cannabis. The reasons that hemp was also included in this law are disputed. Several scholars have claimed that the Act was passed in order to destroy the hemp industry,[94][95][96] largely as an effort of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst, and the Du Pont family.[94][96] With the invention of the decorticator, hemp became a very cheap substitute for the paper pulp that was used in the newspaper industry.[94][97] Hearst felt that this was a threat to his extensive timber holdings. Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury and the wealthiest man in America, had invested heavily in the DuPont's new synthetic fiber, nylon, and considered its success to depend on its replacement of the traditional resource, hemp.[94][98][99][100][101][102][103][104] The claims that hemp could have been a successful substitute for wood pulp have been based on an incorrect government report of 1916 which concluded that hemp hurds, broken parts of the inner core of the hemp stem, were a suitable source for paper production. This has not been confirmed by later research, as hemp hurds are not reported to be a good enough substitute. Many advocates for hemp have greatly overestimated the proportion of useful cellulose in hemp hurds. In 2003, 95?% of the hemp hurds in EU were used for animal bedding, almost 5?% were used as building material.[105][106][107][108] See also Hemp. Legal status Main article: Legality of cannabis See also: Prohibition of drugs and Drug liberalization Cannabis propaganda sheet from 1935 Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession or transfer of cannabis. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation and sometimes a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the black market. In some areas where cannabis use has been historically tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place, such as the closing of cannabis coffee shops near the borders of the Netherlands,[109] closing of coffee shops near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on "Pusher Street" in Christiania, Copenhagen in 2004.[110][111] Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution. More recently however, many political parties, non-profit organizations and causes based on the legalization of medical cannabis and/or legalizing the plant entirely (with some restrictions) have emerged. Price The price or street value of cannabis varies strongly by region and area. In addition, some dealers may sell potent buds at a higher price.[112] In the United States, cannabis is overall the #4 value crop, and is #1 or #2 in many states including California, New York and Florida, averaging $3,000/lb.[113][114] It is believed to generate an estimated $36 billion market.[115] Most of the money is spent not on growing and producing but on smuggling the supply to buyers. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical U.S. retail prices are $10–15 per gram (approximately $280–420 per ounce). Street prices in North America are known to range from about $150 to $400 per ounce, depending on quality.[116] The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varies from 2€ to 14€ per gram, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range 4–10€.[117] In the United Kingdom, a cannabis plant has an approximate street value of £300,[118] but retails to the end-user at about £160/oz. Truth serum Maturing female Cannabis plant Cannabis was used as a truth serum by the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), a US government intelligence agency formed during World War II. In the early 1940s, it was the most effective truth drug developed at the OSS labs at St. Elizabeths Hospital; it caused a subject "to be loquacious and free in his impartation of information."[119] In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS counter-intelligence operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto Del Gracio, an enforcer for gangster Lucky Luciano. Del Gracio was given cigarettes spiked with THC concentrate from cannabis, and subsequently talked openly about Luciano's heroin operation. On a second occasion the dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.[119] Breeding and cultivation Main article: Cannabis cultivation It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when THC was first discovered and understood. However, potent seedless cannabis such as "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. It is often cited that the average levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such statements are likely skewed because of undue weight given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent samples.[120] The average THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is currently about 18–19%, but new regulations adopted by the Dutch government in 2011 will force the THC content of cannabis sold in coffee shops to be limited to 15%, stating that cannabis in excess of 15% THC will be reclassified as a hard drug. These new regulations take effect in 2012.[121][122] In arts and literature Les paradis artificiels by Charles Baudelaire The Hasheesh Eater by Fitz Hugh Ludlow See also Cannabis portal Addiction Recovery Marijuana Anonymous Cannabis plant Bhang Hemp oil Marijuana strains Autoflowering cannabis Thai stick Cannabis legality Cannabis political parties Global Marijuana March Legal and medical status of cannabis Legal history of cannabis in the United States Legality of cannabis by country Marijuana Control, Regulation, and Education Act Marijuana Policy Project Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws Cannabis use demographics Adult lifetime cannabis use by country Annual cannabis use by country Footnotes ^ a: Weed,[123] pot,[124] and herb,[125] are among the many other nicknames for marijuana or cannabis as a drug.[126] ^ b: Sources for this section and more information can be found in the Medical cannabis articleMarijuana" redirects here. For other uses, see Marijuana (disambiguation). For the plant genus, see Cannabis. Dried flowers of the Cannabis sativa plant with visible trichomes. People of the Hadza ethnic group in north-central Tanzania smoking cannabis Cannabis, also known as marijuana[1] (from the Mexican Spanish marihuana) and by other names,a[›] refers to preparations of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug and as medicine.[2][3][4] Chemically, the major psychoactive compound in cannabis is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (?9-THC); it is one of 400 compounds in the plant, including other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), and tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), which can produce sensory effects unlike the psychoactive effects of THC.[5] Contemporary uses of cannabis are as a recreational drug, as religious or spiritual rites, or as medicine; the earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC.[6] In 2004, the United Nations estimated that global consumption of cannabis indicated that approximately 4.0 percent of the adult world population (162 million people) used cannabis annually, and that approximately 0.6 percent (22.5 million) of people used cannabis daily.[7] Since the early 20th century cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use, and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids currently illegal in most countries of the world; the United Nations has said that cannabis is the most used illicit drug in the world.[8][9] Contents [hide] 1 Effects 1.1 Classification 1.2 Medical use 1.3 Long-term effects 2 Forms 2.1 Unprocessed 2.2 Processed 2.2.1 Kief 2.2.2 Hashish 2.2.3 Hash oil 2.2.4 Residue (resin) 3 Routes of administration 4 Mechanism of action 5 Potency 5.1 Difference between Cannabis indica and sativa 5.2 Adulterants 6 Detection of use 7 Gateway drug theory 8 History 9 Legal status 10 Price 11 Truth serum 12 Breeding and cultivation 13 In arts and literature 14 See also 15 Footnotes 16 Citations 17 Further reading 18 External links Effects Main article: Effects of cannabis Main short-term physical effects of cannabis Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight.[10] Aside from a subjective change in perception and, most notably, mood, the most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment of short-term and working memory,[11] psychomotor coordination, and concentration. Long-term effects are less clear.[12][13] Deaths associated to cannabis overdose are exceptionally rare. Fatalities resulting from cannabis overdose are said to most often occur after intravenous injection of hashish oil.[14] Classification Main article: Psychoactive effects While many psychoactive drugs clearly fall into the category of either stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen, cannabis exhibits a mix of all properties, perhaps leaning the most towards hallucinogenic or psychedelic properties, though with other effects quite pronounced as well. Though THC is typically considered the primary active component of the cannabis plant, various scientific studies have suggested that certain other cannabinoids like CBD may also play a significant role in its psychoactive effects.[15][16][17] Medical use Main article: Medical cannabis Prescription medical cannabis in the Netherlands Cannabis used medically has several well-documented beneficial effects. Among these are: the amelioration of nausea and vomiting, stimulation of hunger in chemotherapy and AIDS patients, lowered intraocular eye pressure (shown to be effective for treating glaucoma), as well as general analgesic effects (pain reliever).b[›] Less confirmed individual studies also have been conducted indicating cannabis to be beneficial to a gamut of conditions running from multiple sclerosis to depression. Synthesized cannabinoids are also sold as prescription drugs, including Marinol (dronabinol in the United States and Germany) and Cesamet (nabilone in Canada, Mexico, the United States and the United Kingdom).b[›] Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved smoked cannabis for any condition or disease in the United States, largely because good quality scientific evidence for its use from U.S. studies is lacking.[18] Regardless, fourteen states have legalized cannabis for medical use.[19][20] The United States Supreme Court has ruled in United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Coop and Gonzales v. Raich that it is the federal government that has the right to regulate and criminalize cannabis, even for medical purposes. Canada, Spain, The Netherlands and Austria have legalized some form of cannabis for medicinal use.[21] Long-term effects Main article: Long-term effects of cannabis Main article: Cannabis smoking#Smoking lung cancer risk Cannabis is ranked one of the least harmful drugs by a study published in the UK medical journal, The Lancet.[22] Given the limitations of the research, scientists still debate the possibility of cannabis dependence; the potential of cannabis as a "gateway drug"; its effects on intelligence and memory; its effect on the lungs; and the relationship, if any, of cannabis use to mental disorders[23] such as schizophrenia,[24] psychosis,[25] Depersonalization disorder[26] and depression.[27] Forms Unprocessed Dried Cannabis flowers in natural herbal form The terms cannabis or marijuana generally refer to the dried flowers and subtending leaves and stems of the female cannabis plant.[citation needed] This is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 22% THC.[28][29] In contrast, cannabis varieties used to produce industrial hemp contain less than 1% THC and are thus not valued for recreational use.[30] Processed Kief Main article: Kief Kief is a powder, rich in trichomes, which can be sifted from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants and either consumed in powder form or compressed to produce cakes of hashish.[31] Hashish Main article: Hashish Hashish Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash) is a concentrated resin produced from the flowers of the female cannabis plant. Hash can often be more potent than marijuana and can be smoked or chewed.[32] It varies in color from black to golden brown depending upon purity. Hash oil BHO Main article: Hash oil Hash oil, or "butane honey oil" (BHO), is a mix of essential oils and resins extracted from mature cannabis foliage through the use of various solvents. It has a high proportion of cannabinoids (ranging from 40 to 90%).[33] and is used in a variety of cannabis foods. Residue (resin) Because of THC's adhesive properties, a sticky residue, most commonly known as "resin", builds up inside utensils used to smoke cannabis. It has tar-like properties but still contains THC as well as other cannabinoids. This buildup retains some of the psychoactive properties of cannabis but is more difficult to smoke without discomfort caused to the throat and lungs. This tar may also contain CBN, which is a breakdown product of THC. Cannabis users typically only smoke residue when cannabis is unavailable. Glass pipes may be water-steamed at a low temperature prior to scraping in order to make the residue easier to remove.[34] Routes of administration Main article: Cannabis consumption A joint A forced-air vaporizer. The detachable balloon (top) fills with vapors that are then inhaled. A conduction vaporizer, with flexible extension tube ("whip"). A small serving of cannabis is heated on a metal platform (center). Cannabis is consumed in many different ways, most of which involve inhaling vaporized cannabinoids ("smoke") from small pipes, bongs (portable version of hookah with water chamber), paper-wrapped joints or tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts. A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 365–410 °F (185–210 °C),[citation needed] causing the active ingredients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 390.4 °F (199.1 °C) at 760 mmHg pressure).[35][not in citation given] A lower proportion of toxic chemicals is released than by smoking, depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature setting. This method of consuming cannabis produces markedly different effects than smoking due to the flash points of different cannabinoids; for example, CBN (usually considered undesirable) has a flash point of 212.7 °C (414.9 °F)[36] and would normally be present in smoke but not in vapor. Fresh, non-dried cannabis may be consumed orally. However, the cannabis or its extract must be sufficiently heated or dehydrated to cause decarboxylation of its most abundant cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), into psychoactive THC.[37] Cannabinoids can be extracted from cannabis plant matter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create a tincture, often referred to as Green Dragon. Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter),[38] so tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (i.e. cream or any milk except skim) with a small amount of cannabis. Mechanism of action The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in their persisting in the body for long periods of time. Even after a single administration of THC, detectable levels of THC can be found in the body for weeks or longer (depending on the amount administered and the sensitivity of the assessment method). A number of investigators have suggested that this is an important factor in marijuana's effects, perhaps because cannabinoids may accumulate in the body, particularly in the lipid membranes of neurons.[39] Until recently, little was known about the specific mechanisms of action of THC at the neuronal level. However, researchers have now confirmed that THC exerts its most prominent effects via its actions on two types of cannabinoid receptors, the CB1 receptor and the CB2 receptor, both of which are G-Protein coupled receptors. The CB1 receptor is found primarily in the brain as well as in some peripheral tissues, and the CB2 receptor is found primarily in peripheral tissues, but is also expressed in nueroglial cells as well.[40] THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messenger system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner. These actions can be blocked by the selective CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant), which has been shown in clinical trials to be an effective treatment for smoking cessation, weight loss, and as a means of controlling or reducing metabolic syndrome risk factors.[41] However, due to the dysphoric effect of CB1 antagonists, this drug is often discontinued due to these side effects. Potency According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), "the amount of THC present in a cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency."[42] The three main forms of cannabis products are the flower, resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that cannabis often contains 5% THC content, resin "can contain up to 20% THC content", and that "Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC content."[42] A scientific study published in 2000 in the Journal of Forensic Sciences (JFS) found that the potency (THC content) of confiscated cannabis in the United States (US) rose from "approximately 3.3% in 1983 and 1984", to "4.47% in 1997". It also concluded that "other major cannabinoids (i.e., CBD, CBN, and CBC)" (other chemicals in cannabis) "showed no significant change in their concentration over the years".[43] More recent research undertaken at the University of Mississippi's Potency Monitoring Project[44] has found that average THC levels in cannabis samples between 1975 and 2007 have increased from 4% in 1983 to 9.6% in 2007. Australia's National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (flowers) of the female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have "much lower THC levels".[45] The UN states that the leaves can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC.[42] After revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government moved cannabis back from a class C to a class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance of high potency cannabis. They believe skunk accounts for between 70 and 80% of samples seized by police[46] (despite the fact that skunk can sometimes be incorrectly mistaken for all types of herbal cannabis).[47][48] Extracts such as hashish and hash oil typicality contain more THC than high potency cannabis flowers. While commentators have warned that greater cannabis "strength" could represent a health risk, others have noted that users readily learn to compensate by reducing their dosage, thus benefiting from reductions in smoking side-hazards such as heat shock or carbon monoxide. Difference between Cannabis indica and sativa Types of Cannabis A Cannabis indica plant may have a CBD/THC ratio 4:-5 times that of Cannabis sativa. Cannabis with relatively high ratios of CBD:THC is less likely to induce anxiety than vice versa. This is be due to CBD's antagonistic effects at the cannabinoid receptor, compared to THC's partial agonist effect. CBD is also a 5-HT1A agonist, which contributes to an anxiolytic effect of cannabis.[49] The relatively large amount of CBD contained in Cannabis indica, means, compared to a sativa, the effects are modulated significantly.[citation needed] The effects of sativa are well known for its cerebral high, hence used daytime as medical cannabis, while indica are well known for its sedative effects and prefered night time as medical cannabis.[citation needed] Adulterants Chalk (in the Netherlands) and glass particles (in the UK) have been used to make cannabis appear to be higher quality.[50][51][52] Increasing the weight of hashish products in Germany with lead caused lead intoxication in at least 29 users.[53] In the Netherlands two chemical analogs of Sildenafil (Viagra) were found in adulterated marijuana.[54] According to both the "Talk to FRANK" website and the UKCIA website, Soap Bar, "perhaps the most common type of hash in the UK", was found "at worst" to contain turpentine, tranquilizers, boot polish, henna and animal feces—amongst several other things.[55][56] One small study of five "soap-bar" samples seized by UK Customs in 2001 found huge adulteration by many toxic substances, including soil, glue, engine oil and animal feces.[57] Detection of use Main article: Cannabis drug testing THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH, can be measured in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use testing program or a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal offense. The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, prescription use from illicit use, elapsed time since use, and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, however, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medical purposes from unauthorized recreational smoking.[58] Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays, often employed as the initial screening method when testing physiological specimens for marijuana presence, have different degrees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites. Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC. Blood may contain both substances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage.[58][59][60][61] The Duquenois-Levine test is commonly used as a screening test in the field, but it cannot definitively confirm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives. Despite this, it is common in the United States for prosecutors to seek plea bargains on the basis of positive D-L tests, claiming them definitive, or even to seek conviction without the use of gas chromatography confirmation, which can only be done in the lab.[62] Gateway drug theory Further information: Gateway drug theory Since the 1950s, United States drug policies have been guided by the assumption that trying cannabis increases the probability that users will eventually use "harder" drugs.[63] This hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of anti-cannabis drug policy in the United States,[64] though the validity and implications of this hypothesis are hotly debated.[63] Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.[65] No widely accepted study has ever demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between the use of cannabis and the later use of harder drugs like heroin and cocaine. However, the prevalence of tobacco cigarette advertising and the practice of mixing tobacco and cannabis together in a single large joint, common in Europe, are believed to be cofactors in promoting nicotine dependency among young people trying cannabis.[66] A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a given setting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential than cannabis itself. The study called for further research on "social context, individual characteristics, and drug effects" to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs.[67] A new user of cannabis who feels there is a difference between anti-drug information and their own experiences will apply this distrust to public information about other, more powerful drugs. Some studies state that while there is no proof for this gateway hypothesis, young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk group for intervention programs.[68] Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be "poly-drug" users, and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug.[69] Another gateway hypothesis is that a gateway effect may be detected as a result of the "common factors" involved with using any illegal drug. Because of its illegal status, cannabis users are more likely to be in situations which allow them to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs.[70][71] By this argument, some studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may be regarded as gateway drugs.[65] However, a more parsimonious explanation could be that cannabis is simply more readily available (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs, and alcohol/tobacco are in turn easier to obtain earlier than cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some areas), thus leading to the "gateway sequence" in those people who are most likely to experiment with any drug offered.[63] A 2010 study published in the Journal of Health and Social Behavior found that the main factors in users moving on to other drugs were age, wealth, unemployment status, and psychological stress. The study found there is no "gateway theory" and that drug use is more closely tied to a person's life situation, although cannabis users are more likely to use other drugs.[72] History See also: Cannabis, War on Drugs, and Legal history of cannabis in the United States The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in Taiwan.[73] Má (?), the Chinese expression for hemp, is a pictograph of two plants under a shelter.[74] Cannabis is indigenous to Central and South Asia.[75] Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found in the 3rd millennium BCE, as indicated by charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania.[6] In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.[76][77] Cannabis is also known to have been used by the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal thousands of years ago. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit (?????/????? ganja in modern Indic languages).[78][79] The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas, was sometimes associated with cannabis.[80] Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans.[81] Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word "cannabis".[82] Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai—"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance.[83] Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 AD Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.[84] One writer has claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews and early Christians[85][86] due to the similarity between the Hebrew word "qannabbos" ("cannabis") and the Hebrew phrase "qené bósem" ("aromatic cane"). It was used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.[87] A study published in the South African Journal of Science showed that "pipes dug up from the garden of Shakespeare's home in Stratford-upon-Avon contain traces of cannabis."[88] The chemical analysis was carried out after researchers hypothesized that the "noted weed" mentioned in Sonnet 76 and the "journey in my head" from Sonnet 27 could be references to cannabis and the use thereof.[89] Cannabis was criminalized in various countries beginning in the early 20th century. In the United States, the first restrictions for sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in District of Columbia).[90] It was outlawed in South Africa in 1911, in Jamaica (then a British colony) in 1913, and in the United Kingdom and New Zealand in the 1920s.[91] Canada criminalized cannabis in the Opium and Drug Act of 1923, before any reports of use of the drug in Canada. In 1925 a compromise was made at an international conference in The Hague about the International Opium Convention that banned exportation of "Indian hemp" to countries that had prohibited its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes". It also required parties to "exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicit international traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin".[92][93] In 1937 in the United States, the Marihuana Tax Act was passed, and prohibited the production of hemp in addition to cannabis. The reasons that hemp was also included in this law are disputed. Several scholars have claimed that the Act was passed in order to destroy the hemp industry,[94][95][96] largely as an effort of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst, and the Du Pont family.[94][96] With the invention of the decorticator, hemp became a very cheap substitute for the paper pulp that was used in the newspaper industry.[94][97] Hearst felt that this was a threat to his extensive timber holdings. Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury and the wealthiest man in America, had invested heavily in the DuPont's new synthetic fiber, nylon, and considered its success to depend on its replacement of the traditional resource, hemp.[94][98][99][100][101][102][103][104] The claims that hemp could have been a successful substitute for wood pulp have been based on an incorrect government report of 1916 which concluded that hemp hurds, broken parts of the inner core of the hemp stem, were a suitable source for paper production. This has not been confirmed by later research, as hemp hurds are not reported to be a good enough substitute. Many advocates for hemp have greatly overestimated the proportion of useful cellulose in hemp hurds. In 2003, 95?% of the hemp hurds in EU were used for animal bedding, almost 5?% were used as building material.[105][106][107][108] See also Hemp. Legal status Main article: Legality of cannabis See also: Prohibition of drugs and Drug liberalization Cannabis propaganda sheet from 1935 Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession or transfer of cannabis. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation and sometimes a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the black market. In some areas where cannabis use has been historically tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place, such as the closing of cannabis coffee shops near the borders of the Netherlands,[109] closing of coffee shops near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on "Pusher Street" in Christiania, Copenhagen in 2004.[110][111] Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution. More recently however, many political parties, non-profit organizations and causes based on the legalization of medical cannabis and/or legalizing the plant entirely (with some restrictions) have emerged. Price The price or street value of cannabis varies strongly by region and area. In addition, some dealers may sell potent buds at a higher price.[112] In the United States, cannabis is overall the #4 value crop, and is #1 or #2 in many states including California, New York and Florida, averaging $3,000/lb.[113][114] It is believed to generate an estimated $36 billion market.[115] Most of the money is spent not on growing and producing but on smuggling the supply to buyers. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical U.S. retail prices are $10–15 per gram (approximately $280–420 per ounce). Street prices in North America are known to range from about $150 to $400 per ounce, depending on quality.[116] The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varies from 2€ to 14€ per gram, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range 4–10€.[117] In the United Kingdom, a cannabis plant has an approximate street value of £300,[118] but retails to the end-user at about £160/oz. Truth serum Maturing female Cannabis plant Cannabis was used as a truth serum by the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), a US government intelligence agency formed during World War II. In the early 1940s, it was the most effective truth drug developed at the OSS labs at St. Elizabeths Hospital; it caused a subject "to be loquacious and free in his impartation of information."[119] In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS counter-intelligence operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto Del Gracio, an enforcer for gangster Lucky Luciano. Del Gracio was given cigarettes spiked with THC concentrate from cannabis, and subsequently talked openly about Luciano's heroin operation. On a second occasion the dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.[119] Breeding and cultivation Main article: Cannabis cultivation It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when THC was first discovered and understood. However, potent seedless cannabis such as "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. It is often cited that the average levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such statements are likely skewed because of undue weight given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent samples.[120] The average THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is currently about 18–19%, but new regulations adopted by the Dutch government in 2011 will force the THC content of cannabis sold in coffee shops to be limited to 15%, stating that cannabis in excess of 15% THC will be reclassified as a hard drug. These new regulations take effect in 2012.[121][122] In arts and literature Les paradis artificiels by Charles Baudelaire The Hasheesh Eater by Fitz Hugh Ludlow See also Cannabis portal Addiction Recovery Marijuana Anonymous Cannabis plant Bhang Hemp oil Marijuana strains Autoflowering cannabis Thai stick Cannabis legality Cannabis political parties Global Marijuana March Legal and medical status of cannabis Legal history of cannabis in the United States Legality of cannabis by country Marijuana Control, Regulation, and Education Act Marijuana Policy Project Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws Cannabis use demographics Adult lifetime cannabis use by country Annual cannabis use by country Footnotes ^ a: Weed,[123] pot,[124] and herb,[125] are among the many other nicknames for marijuana or cannabis as a drug.[126] ^ b: Sources for this section and more information can be found in the Medical cannabis articleMarijuana" redirects here. For other uses, see Marijuana (disambiguation). For the plant genus, see Cannabis. Dried flowers of the Cannabis sativa plant with visible trichomes. People of the Hadza ethnic group in north-central Tanzania smoking cannabis Cannabis, also known as marijuana[1] (from the Mexican Spanish marihuana) and by other names,a[›] refers to preparations of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug and as medicine.[2][3][4] Chemically, the major psychoactive compound in cannabis is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (?9-THC); it is one of 400 compounds in the plant, including other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), and tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), which can produce sensory effects unlike the psychoactive effects of THC.[5] Contemporary uses of cannabis are as a recreational drug, as religious or spiritual rites, or as medicine; the earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC.[6] In 2004, the United Nations estimated that global consumption of cannabis indicated that approximately 4.0 percent of the adult world population (162 million people) used cannabis annually, and that approximately 0.6 percent (22.5 million) of people used cannabis daily.[7] Since the early 20th century cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use, and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids currently illegal in most countries of the world; the United Nations has said that cannabis is the most used illicit drug in the world.[8][9] Contents [hide] 1 Effects 1.1 Classification 1.2 Medical use 1.3 Long-term effects 2 Forms 2.1 Unprocessed 2.2 Processed 2.2.1 Kief 2.2.2 Hashish 2.2.3 Hash oil 2.2.4 Residue (resin) 3 Routes of administration 4 Mechanism of action 5 Potency 5.1 Difference between Cannabis indica and sativa 5.2 Adulterants 6 Detection of use 7 Gateway drug theory 8 History 9 Legal status 10 Price 11 Truth serum 12 Breeding and cultivation 13 In arts and literature 14 See also 15 Footnotes 16 Citations 17 Further reading 18 External links Effects Main article: Effects of cannabis Main short-term physical effects of cannabis Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight.[10] Aside from a subjective change in perception and, most notably, mood, the most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment of short-term and working memory,[11] psychomotor coordination, and concentration. Long-term effects are less clear.[12][13] Deaths associated to cannabis overdose are exceptionally rare. Fatalities resulting from cannabis overdose are said to most often occur after intravenous injection of hashish oil.[14] Classification Main article: Psychoactive effects While many psychoactive drugs clearly fall into the category of either stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen, cannabis exhibits a mix of all properties, perhaps leaning the most towards hallucinogenic or psychedelic properties, though with other effects quite pronounced as well. Though THC is typically considered the primary active component of the cannabis plant, various scientific studies have suggested that certain other cannabinoids like CBD may also play a significant role in its psychoactive effects.[15][16][17] Medical use Main article: Medical cannabis Prescription medical cannabis in the Netherlands Cannabis used medically has several well-documented beneficial effects. Among these are: the amelioration of nausea and vomiting, stimulatio

List of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia See also: Lists of Dungeons & Dragons monsters This is the list of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters, an important element of that role-playing game.[1] This list only includes monsters from official Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition supplements published by TSR, Inc. or Wizards of the Coast, not licensed or unlicensed third party products such as video games or unlicensed Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition manuals. Contents [hide] 1 MC1–5 Monstrous Compendiums 2 MC6–10 Monstrous Compendiums 3 MC11–15 Monstrous Compendiums 4 TSR 2140 - Monstrous Manual (1993) 5 TSR 2602 - Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix (1994) 6 TSR 2501 - Monstrous Compendium - Mystara Appendix (1994) 7 TSR 2153 - Monstrous Compendium - Ravenloft Appendix III: Creatures of Darkness (1994) 8 Monstrous Compendium Annuals 9 TSR 2433 - Dark Sun Monstrous Compendium Appendix II: Terrors Beyond Tyr (1995) 10 TSR 2613 - Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix II (1995) 11 TSR 2162 - Ravenloft Monstrous Compendium Appendices I & II (1996) 12 TSR 2524 - Savage Coast Monstrous Compendium Appendix (1996) 13 TSR 2635 - Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix III (1998) 14 TSR 3140 - Birthright - Blood Spawn: Creatures of Light and Shadow (2000) 15 Other sources 15.1 Spelljammer 15.2 Forgotten Realms 15.2.1 TSR1060 - Ruins of Undermountain (1991) 15.2.2 TSR9326 - The Drow of the Underdark (1991) 15.2.3 TSR1083 - Menzoberranzan (1992) 15.2.4 TSR1084 - Ruins of Myth Drannor (1993) 15.2.5 TSR1085 - Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (1993) 15.2.6 TSR9563 - Powers & Pantheons (1997) 15.3 Dragonlance 15.3.1 TSR9294 - Dragon's Rest (1990) 15.3.2 TSR9334 - Wild Elves (1991) 15.3.3 TSR9344 - Taladas: The Minotaurs (1991) 15.3.4 TSR9382 - Flint's Axe (1992) 15.4 Al-Qadim 15.4.1 TSR1077 - Land of Fate (1992) 15.4.2 TSR9366 - Golden Voyages (1992) 15.4.3 TSR1091 - City of Delights (1993) 15.4.4 TSR9431 - Assassin Mountain (1993) 15.4.5 TSR9433 - Secrets of the Lamp (1993) 15.4.6 TSR9440 - Ruined Kingdoms (1994) 15.4.7 TSR9449 - Corsairs of the Great Sea (1994) 15.5 Planescape 15.5.1 TSR2600 - Planescape Campaign Setting (1994) 15.5.2 TSR2603 - Planes of Chaos (1994) 15.5.3 TSR2607 - Planes of Law (1995) 15.5.4 TSR2615 - Planes of Conflict (1995) 15.6 Dark Sun 15.6.1 TSR2400 - Dark Sun Campaign Setting (1991) 15.6.2 TSR2432 - City by the Silt Sea (1994) 15.6.3 TSR2437 - Thri-Kreen of Athas (1995) 15.6.4 TSR2438 - Dark Sun Campaign Setting (1995) 15.6.5 TSR2444 - The Wanderer's Chronicle: Mind Lords of the Last Sea (1996) 15.7 Birthright 15.7.1 TSR3100 - Birthright Campaign Setting (1995) 15.8 Greyhawk 15.8.1 TSR11374 - The Scarlet Brotherhood (1999) 15.9 Other sources 15.9.1 TSR9506 - Chronomancer (1995) 15.9.2 TSR9569 - The Illithiad (1998) 16 References MC1–5 Monstrous Compendiums[edit] [show]TSR 2102 - MC1 - Monstrous Compendium Volume One (1989) – ISBN 0-88038-738-6 [show]TSR 2103 - MC2 - Monstrous Compendium Volume Two (1989) – ISBN 0-88038-753-X [show]TSR 2104 - MC3 - Monstrous Compendium - Forgotten Realms Appendix (1989) – ISBN 0-88038-769-6 [show]TSR 2105 - MC4 - Monstrous Compendium - Dragonlance Appendix (1990) – ISBN 0-88038-822-6 [show]TSR 2107 - MC5 - Monstrous Compendium - Greyhawk Appendix (1990) – ISBN 0-88038-836-6 MC6–10 Monstrous Compendiums[edit] [show]TSR 2116 - MC6 - Monstrous Compendium - Kara-Tur Appendix (1990) – ISBN 0-88038-851-X [show]TSR 2109 - MC7 - Monstrous Compendium - Spelljammer Appendix (1990) – ISBN 0-88038-871-4 [show]TSR 2118 - MC8 - Monstrous Compendium - Outer Planes Appendix (1991) – ISBN 1-56076-055-9 [show]TSR 2119 - MC9 - Monstrous Compendium - Spelljammer Appendix (1991) – ISBN 1-56076-071-0 [show]TSR 2122 - MC10 - Monstrous Compendium - Ravenloft Appendix (1991) – ISBN 1-56076-108-3 MC11–15 Monstrous Compendiums[edit] [show]TSR 2125 - MC11 - Monstrous Compendium - Forgotten Realms Appendix II (1991) – ISBN 1-56076-111-3 [show]TSR 2405 - MC12 - Monstrous Compendium - Dark Sun Appendix: Terrors of the Desert (1992) – ISBN 1-56076-272-1 [show]TSR 2129 - MC13 - Monstrous Compendium - Al-Qadim Appendix (1992) – ISBN 1-56076-370-1 [show]TSR 2132 - MC14 - Monstrous Compendium - Fiend Folio Appendix (1992) – ISBN 1-56076-428-7 [show]TSR 2139 - MC15 - Monstrous Compendium - Ravenloft Appendix II: Children of the Night (1993) – ISBN 1-56076-586-0 TSR 2140 - Monstrous Manual (1993)[edit] [show]TSR 2140 - Monstrous Manual (1993) – ISBN 1-56076-619-0 TSR 2602 - Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix (1994)[edit] [show]TSR 2602 - Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix (1994) – ISBN 1-56076-862-2 TSR 2501 - Monstrous Compendium - Mystara Appendix (1994)[edit] [show]TSR 2501 - Monstrous Compendium - Mystara Appendix (1994) – ISBN 1-56076-875-4 TSR 2153 - Monstrous Compendium - Ravenloft Appendix III: Creatures of Darkness (1994)[edit] [show]TSR 2153 - Monstrous Compendium - Ravenloft Appendix III: Creatures of Darkness (1994) – ISBN 1-56076-914-9 Monstrous Compendium Annuals[edit] [show]TSR 2145 - Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) – ISBN 1-56076-838-X [show]TSR 2158 - Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two (1995) – ISBN 0-7869-0199-3 [show]TSR 2166 - Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) – ISBN 0-7869-0449-6 [show]TSR 2173 - Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four (1998) – ISBN 0-7869-1212-X TSR 2433 - Dark Sun Monstrous Compendium Appendix II: Terrors Beyond Tyr (1995)[edit] [show]TSR 2433 - Dark Sun Monstrous Compendium Appendix II: Terrors Beyond Tyr (1995) – ISBN 0-7869-0097-0 TSR 2613 - Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix II (1995)[edit] [show]TSR 2613 - Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix II (1995) – ISBN 0-7869-0173-X TSR 2162 - Ravenloft Monstrous Compendium Appendices I & II (1996)[edit] [show]TSR 2162 - Ravenloft Monstrous Compendium Appendices I & II (1996) – ISBN 0-7869-0392-9 TSR 2524 - Savage Coast Monstrous Compendium Appendix (1996)[edit] [show]TSR 2524 - Savage Coast Monstrous Compendium Appendix (1996) TSR 2635 - Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix III (1998)[edit] [show]TSR 2635 - Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix III (1998) – ISBN 0-7869-0751-7 TSR 3140 - Birthright - Blood Spawn: Creatures of Light and Shadow (2000)[edit] [show]TSR 3140 - Birthright - Blood Spawn: Creatures of Light and Shadow (2000) Other sources[edit] This section lists fictional creatures for AD&D 2nd edition from various sources not explicitly dedicated to presenting monsters. Primarily, these are the separate sourcebooks and expansions for the Forgotten Realms, Al-Qadim and other campaign settings produced by TSR. Spelljammer[edit] [show]TSR1049 - Spelljammer: AD&D Adventures In Space (1989) [show]TSR9280 - Lost Ships (1990) [show]TSR1065 - The Legend of Spelljammer (1991) [show]TSR9409 - Krynnspace (1993) Forgotten Realms[edit] TSR1060 - Ruins of Undermountain (1991)[edit] The Forgotten Realms Ruins of Undermountain boxed set included 8 unnumbered 5-hole punched loose-leaf pages of creature descriptions in Monstrous Compendium format. ISBN 1-56076-061-3 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Beholder (Elder Orb) Monstrous Manual (1993), Black Spine (1994), I, Tyrant (1996), Lords of Madness (2005) Beholder-kin (Death Kiss) Monstrous Manual (1993), Black Spine (1994), I, Tyrant (1996), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), Lords of Madness (2005), Dragon Compendium, Volume 1 (2005) Darktentacles Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two (1995), Monster Manual II (2002) Ibrandlin Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996), Priest's Spell Compendium, Volume One (1999), Monsters of Faerûn (2001) Scaladar Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two (1995), City of Splendors: Waterdeep (2005) Sharn Netheril: Empire of Magic (1996), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), Anauroch: The Empire of the Shade (2007), Forgotten Realms Campaign Guide (2008) Slithermorph None Snakes, Flying Races of Faerûn (2003) Flying Fang and Deathfang Steel Shadow None Watchghost Wizard's Spell Compendium, Volume One (1996), Monsters of Faerûn (2001) TSR9326 - The Drow of the Underdark (1991)[edit] This 128-page softbound book provides additional details on the history, culture and society of the dark elves, and includes 9 additional creature descriptions in Monstrous Compendium format on pages 113-127. ISBN 1-56076-132-6 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Bat, Deep 113-114 Dragon #90 (1984), D&D Master Rules (1985) (Werebat), Monstrous Compendium Ravenloft Appendix (1991) (Werebat), Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia (1991) (Werebat), Monstrous Compendium Forgotten Realms Appendix (1991), 1991 Trading Cards Set #383 (Werebat), Night Howlers (1992) (Werebat), Monstrous Manual (1993), Ravenloft Monstrous Compendium Appendices I & II (1996) (Werebat), Monsters of Faerûn (2001) (Night Hunter, Sinister) Azmyth, Night Hunter, Sinister and Werebat Dragon, Deep 115-116 Monstrous Compendium Forgotten Realms Appendix (1991), Monstrous Manual (1993), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), D&D Miniatures: Underdark set #52 (2005), Drow of the Underdark (2007), Draconomicon (2008) (as "Purple Dragon") Myrlochar 117 Monsters of Faerûn (2001) Pedipalp 118-119 Queen of the Demonweb Pits (1980), Monster Manual II (1983), Tome of Horrors (2002) Large (Schizomida), Huge (Amblypygus) and Giant (Uropygi) Rothé, Deep 120-121 Fiend Folio (1981), Monstrous Manual (1993), Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2001) Solifugid 122 Queen of the Demonweb Pits (1980), Monster Manual II (1983), Tome of Horrors (2002) Large, Huge and Giant Spider, Subterranean 123-124 Ruins of Undermountain (1991) (Hunting as "Spider, Flying", Watch), Monstrous Manual (1993), City of Splendors (1994) (Watch), Monsters of Faerûn (2001) (Hairy, Sword), Faiths and Pantheons (2002) (Hairy), City of Splendors: Waterdeep (2005) (Watch) Hairy, Hunting, Sword and Watch Spitting Crawler 125 Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2001) Yochlol 126-127 Queen of the Demonweb Pits (1980), Monster Manual II (1983), Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix II (1995), Villains' Lorebook (1998), Dungeon #84 (2001), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), Fiendish Codex I (2006), Demon Queen's Enclave (2008) TSR1083 - Menzoberranzan (1992)[edit] The Forgotten Realms Menzoberranzan boxed set included 7 pages of creature descriptions in Monstrous Compendium format, bound into the first book of the set (The City) on pages 88–94. ISBN 1-56076-460-0 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Alhoon (Illithilich) 88 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996), The Illithiad (1998), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), Lords of Madness (2005), D&D Miniatures: Night Below #38 (2007) Cloaker Lord 89 Monsters of Faerûn (2001) Foulwing 90 Dragon #197 (1993), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Lost Empires of Faerûn (2005) Lizard, Subterranean 91 Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2001), Dungeon #94 (2002) Pack Lizard Riding Lizard 92 Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2001) Wingless Wonder 93-94 Dragon #40 (1980), Wizard's Spell Compendium, Volume Four (1998), Secrets of the Magister (2000) True and Transformed TSR1084 - Ruins of Myth Drannor (1993)[edit] The Forgotten Realms The Ruins of Myth Drannor boxed set included 8 unnumbered 5-hole punched loose-leaf pages of creature descriptions in Monstrous Compendium format. ISBN 1-56076-569-0 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Aratha (Killer Beetle) Monstrous Manual (1993) Baelnorn Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Cormanthyr: Empire of Elves (1998), Monsters of Faerûn (2001) Blazing Bones Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Doomsphere (Ghost Beholder) Monstrous Manual (1993), Black Spine (1994), I, Tyrant (1996), Monsters of Faerûn (2001) Electrum Dragon Dragon #74 (1983), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Fang Dragon Dragon #134 (1988), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), Draconomicon (2003), D&D Miniatures: War of the Dragon Queen set #48 (2006), Draconomicon (2008) (as "Gray Dragon") Dread Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Lost Empires of Faerûn (2005) Feystag (Calygraunt) Dragon #89 (1989) (as "Calygraunt"), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Lythlyx Dragon #43 (1980), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Magebane Dragon #140 (1988), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Metalmaster (Sword Slug) Dragon #139 (1988), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Lost Empires of Faerûn (2005) Naga, Bone Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Monster Manual II (2002), Serpent Kingdoms (2004), D&D Miniatures: Unhallowed set #34, Monster Manual (2008) Ormyrr Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Monster Manual II (2002) Windghost Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Monster Manual II (2002) Xantravar (Stinging Horror) Dragon #140 (1988), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Xaver Dragon #94 (1985), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) TSR1085 - Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (1993)[edit] The Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2nd edition) boxed set included 8 unnumbered 5-hole punched loose-leaf pages of creature descriptions in Monstrous Compendium format. ISBN 1560766174 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Aballin Monstrous Compendium Fiend Folio Appendix (1992), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Monsters of Faerûn (2001) Baneguard Shadowdale (1989), Ruins of Undermountain (1991), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), Lost Empires of Faerûn (2005) Direguard Bonebat Halls of the High King (1990), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996), Monsters of Faerûn (2001) Battlebat Deepspawn Dwarves Deep (1990), Monstrous Manual (1993), Pool of Radiance: Attack on Myth Drannor (2000), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), Lost Empires of Faerûn (2005) Dracolich Dragon #110 (1986), Waterdeep and the North (1987), Monstrous Compendium Volume Three: Forgotten Realms Appendix (1989), 1991 Trading Cards #251, Monstrous Manual (1993), 1993 Trading Cards #387, Cult of the Dragon (1998), Draconomicon (2003), Dragon #344 "The Ecology of the Dracolich" (2006), D&D Miniatures: War of the Dragon Queen set #31 (2006), Dragon: Monster Ecologies (2007), Monster Manual (2008) Gambado Fiend Folio (1981), Monstrous Compendium Fiend Folio Appendix (1992), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Tome of Horrors (2002) Gibbering Mouther Lost Tamoachan (1979), Hidden Shrine of Tamoachan (1979), Monster Manual II (1983), Dragon #160 "The Ecology of the Gibbering Mouther" (1990), Assassin Mountain (1993), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Monster Manual (2000, 2003), D&D Miniatures: Aberrations set #50 (2004), Lords of Madness (2005), Monster Manual (2008) Gibberling Fiend Folio (1981), Monstrous Compendium Fiend Folio Appendix (1992), Monstrous Manual (1993), Dragon #265 (1999), Monsters of Faerûn (2001) Helmed Horror Halls of the High King (1990), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Priest's Spell Compendium, Volume Three (2000), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), Dragon #302 (2002), Lost Empires of Faerûn (2005), D&D Miniatures: Underdark set #37 (2005), Monster Manual (2008) Lock Lurker Dragon #139 (1988), Haunted Halls of Evening Star (1992), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Priest's Spell Compendium, Volume Three (2000) Naga, Dark Dragon #89 (1984), Anauroch (1991), Monstrous Compendium Forgotten Realms Appendix (1991), Dragon #261 "The Ecology of the Dark Naga: Fool Me Twice" (1999), Monster Manual (2000, 2003), D&D Miniatures: Underdark set #33 (2005), Monster Manual (2008) Nishruu Halls of the High King (1990), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), Lost Empires of Faerûn (2005) Quaggoth Fiend Folio (1981), Monstrous Compendium Fiend Folio Appendix (1992), Monstrous Manual (1993), Dragon #265 (1999), Monsters of Faerûn (2001), D&D Miniatures: War Drums set #57 (2006), Drow of the Underdark (2007) Skum Polyhedron #67 (1992), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Monster Manual (2000, 2003) Tressym Haunted Halls of Evening Star (1992), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994), Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2001), Lost Empires of Faerûn (2005) TSR9563 - Powers & Pantheons (1997)[edit] The Forgotten Realms campaign expansion Powers & Pantheons by Eric L. Boyd contained next to the description of many deities also new creatures. ISBN 0-7869-0657-X Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Divine Minion 187 Planescape Campaign Setting (1994) (Minion of Set) Magical servants of Mulhorandi deities with the ability to shapechange into specific animals. Elder Eternal Evil 188-191 Dendar the Night Serpent, Kezef the Chaos Hound, Ityak-Ortheel, the Elf-Eater Titanic mythological evil creatures from the Outer Planes related to Abeir-Toril's prehistory Shade 192 Monster Manual II (1983), Dragon #126 "The Ecology of the Shade" (1987), Dragon #213 (1995), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four (1998), Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2001), Races of Faerûn (2003), Dragon #307 (2003), Forgotten Realms Campaign Guide (2008) Humans or demihumans imbued with the essence of the Plane of Shadow Dragonlance[edit] TSR9294 - Dragon's Rest (1990)[edit] The Dragonlance adventure Dragon's Rest by Rick Swan contained three new fictional creatures. Its TSR product code was DLA3. ISBN 0-88038-869-2 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Chronolily 57 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two (1995) Immense sentient flower whose nectar reveals images of the past, present and future. Chulcrix 58 Gigantic carnivorous worm with two pincers dwelling on the Ethereal plane. Gk'lok-Lok 59 Tribal creatures consisting of stalk-like tendrils that spend their lives dormant, re-experiencing the lives of dead warriors. TSR9334 - Wild Elves (1991)[edit] The Dragonlance adventure Wild Elves by Scott Bennie contained six new fictional creatures. Its TSR product code was DLS4. ISBN 1-56076-140-7 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Curotai 56 Kagonesti transformed into six-armed ferocious evil fighter. Dragon, Spider 57 Dragon-like evil creature with spider-legs and eyes. Handmaiden of Takhisis 58 Jiathuli Powerful evil entity with many spell-casting abilities serving Takhisis. Ice Vampire 59 Undead Kagonesti with the ability to manipulate cold and a hunger for the warmth of living creatures. Spider Horse 60 Predatory hybrid between a spider and a horse. Weapon, Living 61 Evil spirit animating a melee weapon. TSR9344 - Taladas: The Minotaurs (1991)[edit] The Dragonlance game accessory Taladas: The Minotaurs by Colin McComb contained several new creatures. Its TSR product code was DLR2. ISBN 1-56076-150-4 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Children of the Sea 61 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four (1998) Child of the Sea and Accantus Human-like aquatic race that reproduces with humans. Accanta are wild and aggressive versions of the children of the sea that possess additional powers. Grain Nymph 62 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four (1998) Cultivated relatives of the nymph associated with farmland Yrasda 63 Aphelka, Thanic and Ushama Irda-like race closely linked to the sea with the ability to shapechange into a specific sea creature TSR9382 - Flint's Axe (1992)[edit] The Dragonlance adventure Flint's Axe by Tim Beach contained a new creature. Its TSR product code was DLQ2. ISBN 1-56076-422-8 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Tyin 32 Adult and larva 9-foot-tall (2.7 m) grotesque semi-intelligent humanoid predator that can spit acid. Al-Qadim[edit] TSR1077 - Land of Fate (1992)[edit] The Al-Qadim Land of Fate boxed set contains 8 unnumbered 5-hole punched loose-leaf pages in Monstrous Compendium format. ISBN 1-56076-329-9 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Genie of Zakhara, Dao Monstrous Compendium Volume One (1994), Monstrous Manual (1993) Genie of Zakhara, Djinni Monstrous Compendium Volume One (1994), Monstrous Manual (1993) Genie of Zakhara, Efreeti Monstrous Compendium Volume One (1994), Monstrous Manual (1993) Genie of Zakhara, Janni Monstrous Compendium Volume Two (1995), Monstrous Manual (1993) Genie of Zakhara, Marid Monstrous Compendium Volume Two (1995), Monstrous Manual (1993) Giant, Island Giant, Ogre Roc, Zakharan Common, Great and Two-Headed Yak-Man (Yikaria) Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two (1995) TSR9366 - Golden Voyages (1992)[edit] The Al-Qadim Golden Voyages boxed set by David "Zeb" Cook contains 4 unnumbered 5-hole punched loose-leaf pages in Monstrous Compendium format, each with a full-page image of the creature described on the back. The TSR product code for the set was ALQ1. ISBN 1-56076-331-0 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Coelenite Coelenite Colony and Mass Colony Polyp colony with a mass mind, forming vaguely humanoid bodies from coral pieces. Ogrima Large evil humanoid resulting from breeding of an ogre and ogre mage. Sartani Up to 20-foot-tall (6.1 m) humanoid with crab-like head, arms and pincers. TSR1091 - City of Delights (1993)[edit] The Al-Qadim City of Delights boxed set contains 8 unnumbered 5-hole punched loose-leaf pages in Monstrous Compendium format. ISBN 1-56076-589-5 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Afanc (Gawwar Samakat) Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Afanc and Young Afanc Al-Jahar Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Cat, Winged Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Lesser and Greater Winged Cat Crypt Servant Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Genie, Tasked, Administrator Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Genie, Tasked, Harim Servant Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Ogre, Zakharan Opinicus Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Parasite Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Bloodring, Ear Seeker, Goldbug, Wizard Lice and Vilirij Pasari-Niml Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Warrior, Noble and Calipha Singing Tree Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Sirine Monstrous Manual (1993) Talking Bird Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Tatalla Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Vargouille Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix (1994) Vermin, Elemental Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One (1994) Air (Duster), Earth (Crawler), Fire (Flameling) and Water (Spitter) Elemental Vermin TSR9431 - Assassin Mountain (1993)[edit] The Al-Qadim Assassin Mountain boxed set contains 4 unnumbered 5-hole punched loose-leaf pages in Monstrous Compendium format. The TSR product code for the set was ALQ2. ISBN 1-56076-564-X All of the fictional creatures described in this accessory are included in the Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One, above, and are not reproduced here. TSR9433 - Secrets of the Lamp (1993)[edit] The Al-Qadim Secrets of the Lamp boxed set contains 4 unnumbered 5-hole punched loose-leaf pages in Monstrous Compendium format. The TSR product code for the set was ALQ4. ISBN 1-56076-647-6 All of the fictional creatures described in this set are included in either the Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume One or the Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix, above, and are not reproduced here. TSR9440 - Ruined Kingdoms (1994)[edit] The Al-Qadim Ruined Kingdoms boxed set by Steven Kurtz contains an 8-page booklet with non-player characters and monsters. ISBN 1-56076-815-0 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Segarran 1 Humanoid with the head and tail of a crocodile and the ability to assume human form; servants of the evil goddess Ragarra. Greater seggaran have additional magical powers and bat's wings. Serpent 8 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two (1995) Herald and Teak Herald serpent: intelligent, good-aligned messengers of serpent lords. Teak serpent: a 30-ft long constrictor snake. TSR9449 - Corsairs of the Great Sea (1994)[edit] The Al-Qadim Corsairs of the Great Sea boxed set by Nicky Rea contains an 8-page booklet with monsters. ISBN 1-56076-867-3 All of the fictional creatures described in this set are included in the Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two, above, and are not reproduced here. Planescape[edit] TSR2600 - Planescape Campaign Setting (1994)[edit] The Planescape Campaign Setting boxed set contains a 32-page Monstrous Supplement booklet. ISBN 1-56076-834-7 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Aleax 2-3 Astral Searcher 4-5 Barghest 6-7 Cranium Rat 8-9 Dabus 10-11 Magman 12-13 Minion of Set 14-15 Powers & Pantheons (1997) (Divine Minion) Minion of Set and Shadow Priest Modron 16-23 Monodrone, Duodrone, Tridrone, Quadron, Pentadrone, Decaton, Nonaton, Octon, Septon, Hexton, Quinton, Quarton, Tertian, Secundus, Primus and Rogue Unit Nic'Epona 24-25 Spirit of the Air 26-27 Vortex 28-29 Yugoloth, Lesser - Marraenoloth 30-31 TSR2603 - Planes of Chaos (1994)[edit] The Planescape Planes of Chaos boxed set contains a 32-page Monstrous Supplement booklet. ISBN 1-56076-874-6 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Abyssal Lord 2-3 Graz'zt and Pazrael Asrai 4-5 Bacchae 6-7 Chaos Beast 8-9 Chaos Imp 10-11 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Fensir 12-13 Male, female and young Fensir, Fensir Mage and Rakka Howler 14-15 Lillend 16-17 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Murska 18-19 Oread 20-21 Oread and Snowhair Ratatosk 22-23 Tanar'ri, Lesser - Armanite 24-25 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Tanar'ri, Greater - Goristro 26-27 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Varrangoin (Abyssal Bat) 28-29 Lesser (types I-IV) and Greater Varrangoin (types V-VI) Viper Tree 30-31 Viper Tree and Larval Viper Tree TSR2607 - Planes of Law (1995)[edit] The Planescape Planes of Law boxed set contains a 32-page Monstrous Supplement booklet. ISBN 0-7869-0093-8 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Achaierai 2-3 Monstrous Compendium - Fiend Folio Appendix (1992) Archon 4-9 Monstrous Compendium - Outer Planes Appendix (1991) (Lantern, Hound, Warden, Sword and Tome) Lantern, Hound, Warden, Sword, Trumpet, Throne, Tome and Fallen Baatezu, Lesser - Kocrachon 10-11 Bezekira (Hellcat) 12-13 Monstrous Compendium - Fiend Folio Appendix (1992) Bladeling 14-15 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Busen 16-17 Formian 18-19 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Gear Spirit 20-21 Kyton 22-23 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Moigno 24-25 Parai 26-27 Rust Dragon 28-29 Zoveri 30-31 Monstrous Compendium - Outer Planes Appendix (1991) TSR2615 - Planes of Conflict (1995)[edit] The Planescape Planes of Conflict boxed set contains a 32-page Monstrous Supplement booklet. ISBN 0-7869-0309-0 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Aeserpent 2-3 Asuras 4-5 Monstrous Compendium - Al-Qadim Appendix (1992) Buraq 6-7 Monstrous Compendium - Al-Qadim Appendix (1992) Delphon 8-9 Diakk 10-11 Varath and Carcene Ethyk 12-13 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Gautiere 14-15 Linqua 16-17 Ni'iath 18-19 Phiuhl 20-21 Quesar 22-23 Slasrath 24-25 Vaath 26-27 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Warden Beast 28-29 Monstrous Compendium - Outer Planes Appendix (1991) Yugoloth, Greater - Baernaloth 30-31 Baernaloth and Demented Dark Sun[edit] TSR2400 - Dark Sun Campaign Setting (1991)[edit] The original Dark Sun Boxed Set for the Dark Sun campaign setting contains several pages of monster description in The Wanderer's Journal book, as well as in the A Little Knowledge adventure booklet. ISBN 0-7869-0162-4 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Animal, Domestic 85-86 Erdlu, inix, kank and mekillot Erdlu: large flightless scaled bird kept for meat and eggs; inix: 16-feet carnivorous lizard used for riding and transport; kank: 8-feet-long black insects kept as mounts and for honey; mekillot: 30-feet-long moundshaped foul-tempered lizards used as caravan beasts Belgoi 87 Belgoi appear human, but with long claws, toothless mouths, and webbed feet. They have a taste for the flesh of intelligent races. Braxat 88 It is difficult to tell whether the braxat are of mammalian or reptilian stock. Their backs are covered with shells and their heads have a lizard-like shape. But, they walk upright, can speak with a human-like voice, have opposable thumbs, and are warm-blooded. Dragon of Tyr 89 Fortunately, there is only one dragon in the Tyr region. Dune Freak (Anakore) 90 A race of dimwitted humanoids with bony, wedge-like heads, small ears, and beady eyes covered by clear membranes to prevent sand from scratching them. Gaj 91 A psionic horror, though physically it appears as a reptilian beetle six feet long. Giant, Athasian 92 Monstrous Compendium - Dark Sun Appendix: Terrors of the Desert (1992) Beasthead, desert and plains giant Beasthead: 20ft-tall hostile giants with an animal head; desert: 25ft-tall giants living on desert islands; plains: 25ft-tall giants raising herds on islands with scrub plains terrain Gith 93 A grotesque race that appear to be a mixture of elf and reptile. Jorzhal 94 About four feet tall, the jozhal is a small, two-legged reptile with a skinny tail, a long flexible neck, and a narrow snout. Silk Wyrm 95 A snake with a hard, chitinous shell that measure over 50 feet in length. Tembo 96 A despicable, furless, tawny-colored beast covered with loose folds of scaly hide. Kluzd 15 Snake-like reptiles that inhabit mudflats, ten feet long and two to three feet in diameter. They can swallow a grown man whole. Wezer 16 worker, soldier, brood queen Enormous flying insects that make underground hives in the desert. TSR2432 - City by the Silt Sea (1994)[edit] The City by the Silt Sea campaign expansion box for the Dark Sun campaign setting by Shane Lacy Hensley contains a 32-page Monstrous Supplement. ISBN 1-56076-882-7 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Absalom (Unique Morg) 2-3 High Priest of Dregoth, an undead, mummy-like dray Caller in the Darkness 4-5 Supernatural storm of trapped spirits that inspires fear and draws in psionicists within its reach Dragon Beetle 6-7 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two (1995) 1-foot-long (0.30 m) horned beetle living in groups with a poison dangerous to drakes, dragons and dray Dray 8-9 Dark Sun Monstrous Compendium Appendix II: Terrors Beyond Tyr (1995) Race of tall, lean, draconic humanoids created from humans by Dregoth Dregoth, the Undead Dragon King 10-11 Dark Sun Campaign Setting (1995) Undead Dragon of Tyr, a mighty human sorcerer-psionicist transformed into a dragon-like being Dwarf, Cursed Dead 12-13 Intelligent undead dwarves capable of attaking by shooting their sinews at an opponent Kalin 14-15 Dark Sun Monstrous Compendium Appendix II: Terrors Beyond Tyr (1995), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two (1995) Kalin and Kalin Rider 12-foot-long (3.7 m) aggressive insectoid creatures used as mounts by kalin riders. Kalin riders: Elite templar troops of Dregoth Krag 16-17 Dark Sun Monstrous Compendium Appendix II: Terrors Beyond Tyr (1995) Undead with special powers related to the element or paraelement that killed it Kragling 18-19 Dark Sun Monstrous Compendium Appendix II: Terrors Beyond Tyr (1995) Lesser and greater Skeletal Undead created and controlled by a krag and associated with that krag's element Pit Snatchers 20-21 Elemental-like creature made of smoking tar that tries to drag its victims into the tar pit it lives in Sharg 22-23 40-foot water creature resembling a crossbreed between a giant shark and a squid Silt Serpent 24-25 Normal and giant Poisonous serpent with psionic sensory powers, inhabiting the shallows of the Silt Sea Silt Spawn 26-27 Dark Sun Monstrous Compendium Appendix II: Terrors Beyond Tyr (1995) The young of a Silt Horror, this tentacled creature lives in groups in the shallows of the Sea of Silt Venger 28-29 Undead relentlessly seeking to destroy someone who did it a great wrong Wall-Walker 30-31 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Two (1995) 5-foot-long (1.5 m), scaled, spider-like subterranean creature using chameleon-like powers and paralytic poison to torment its victims TSR2437 - Thri-Kreen of Athas (1995)[edit] The Dark Sun campaign setting accessory Thri-Kreen of Athas by Tim Beach and Dori Hein contains three monster descriptions. ISBN 0-7869-0125-X Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Trin 125 Dark Sun Monstrous Compendium Appendix II: Terrors Beyond Tyr 9-foot-long (2.7 m) moderately intelligent insectoid creatures with four legs and two clawed arms, primitive relatives to thri-kreen Jalath'gak 126 Normal and giant 13-foot-long (4.0 m) predatory winged insect appearing in swarms Zik-trin'ak 127 Thri-kreen warrior caste enhanced for combat from normal members of their species TSR2438 - Dark Sun Campaign Setting (1995)[edit] The expanded and revised Campaign setting boxed set for Dark Sun contains several pages of monster description in The Wanderer's Chronicle booklet. ISBN 0-7869-0162-4 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Animal, Domestic 123-124 Erdlu, inix, kank and mekillot Erdlu: large flightless scaled bird kept for meat and eggs; inix: 16-feet carnivorous lizard used for riding and transport; kank: 8-feet-long black insects kept as mounts and for honey; mekillot: 30-feet-long moundshaped foul-tempered lizards used as caravan beasts Dregoth, the Undead Dragon King 125-125 City by the Silt Sea (1994) Undead Dragon of Tyr, a mighty human sorcerer-psionicist transformed into a dragon-like being Giant, Athasian 127-128 Monstrous Compendium - Dark Sun Appendix: Terrors of the Desert (1992) Beasthead, desert and plains giant Beasthead: 20ft-tall hostile giants with an animal head; desert: 25ft-tall giants living on desert islands; plains: 25ft-tall giants raising herds on islands with scrub plains terrain TSR2444 - The Wanderer's Chronicle: Mind Lords of the Last Sea (1996)[edit] The Wanderer's Chronicle: Mind Lords of the Last Sea book in the Dark Sun campaign setting accessory box of the same name by Matt Forbeck contains ten pages of descriptions of NPCs and monsters. ISBN 0-7869-0367-8 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Dolphin, Athasian 78-79 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four Giant, Crag 80 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four Kreel 84 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four (as Fish, Athasian) Lizard Man, Athasian 87-88 Puddingfish 89 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four (as Fish, Athasian) Shark, Athasian 90 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four (as Fish, Athasian) Skyfish 91 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four (as Fish, Athasian) Squark 92-93 Birthright[edit] TSR3100 - Birthright Campaign Setting (1995)[edit] Within the Birthright Campaign Setting box were a set of cardsheet, separate from the books. Beyond rules summaries and handy charts, several unique monsters were presented. Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Dragon, Cerilian card 7 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) A dragon variant unique to this setting, with a breath weapon of a stream of burning venom. Giant, Cerilian card 7 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Forest, Ice Goblin, Cerilian card 8 Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three (1996) Orog card 8 A subterranean race of miners and warriors that inhabit Cerilia's mountain ranges. The Gorgon card 9 One of the awnsheghlien, he is the regent of The Gorgon's Crown in North Anuire. Rhuobhe Manslayer card 10 One of the awnsheghlien, an elf twisted by his hatred and pledge to exterminate all humanity. The Seadrake card 11 One of the awnsheghlien, a merchant who transformed into a massive sea serpent over centuries. The Spider card 12 One of the awnsheghlien, a goblin who became an arachnoid monster, and regent of The Spiderfell. Greyhawk[edit] TSR11374 - The Scarlet Brotherhood (1999)[edit] The Greyhawk campaign setting accessory The Scarlet Brotherhood by Sean Reynolds contains the descriptions of seven monsters. Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Bredthrall (slave races) 87-88 Komazar, Kurg, Rullhow Gibbering Mouther, Greater 89 Gibberspawn Onco 90 Ravenous 91 Su-Monkey 91 Thousandtooth 93 Tolkasazotz (Olman Bat-Vampire) 94 Other sources[edit] TSR9506 - Chronomancer (1995)[edit] The Chronomancer game accessory by Loren Coleman contains 7 pages of monsters living on Temporal Prime, a fictitious dimension that allows time travel. ISBN 0-7869-0325-2 All of the fictional creatures described in this accessory are included in the Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Three, above, and are not reproduced here. TSR9569 - The Illithiad (1998)[edit] The Illithiad game accessory by Bruce R. Cordell from the Monstrous Arcana series contains 7 pages of monsters linked to the illithids. ISBN 0-7869-1206-5 Creature Page Other appearances Variants Description Elder Brain 92-93 10-foot-diameter (3.0 m) brain with psionic abilities, that is the center of an illithid community. Urophions 90, 94 Lords of Madness (2005) Cross between roper and illithid that looks like a rocky outcropping and has hidden tentacles. Neothelid 90-91, 95 Psionics Handbook (2001) Worm-like creature 10 feet (3.0 m) in diameter and 100 feet (30 m) long with four long tentacles protruding from the lamprey-like maw. Gohlbrorn 96 Dragon Annual #1 (1996), Monstrous Compendium Annual Volume Four (1998) (as Bulette, Gohlbrorn) Subterranean predator; a smaller, more intelligent relative of the bulette. [show] v t e Dungeons & Dragons References[edit] Jump up ^ Wienecke-Janz, Detlef, ed. (2002). Lexikon der Zauberwelten - Gandalf & Co. Wissen Media Verlag. p. 12. ISBN 3-577-13505-0. Jump up ^ "The Bos is Back". wizards.com. Retrieved 17 December 2010. Jump up ^ "Wizards Celebrates Birthright's Anniversary". Wizards.com. Retrieved 2010-11-07. Categories: Lists of fictional speciesDungeons & Dragons creatures

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